All Queries 9. The Archaic Cosmology of Cities: Building the Kosmos on Earth

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The Creation of Order » 9. The Archaic Cosmology of Cities: Building the Kosmos on Earth

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Text Access

Quoted text:

Pierre Amiet, Culte et Mythologie (Paris: 1951).
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Missing Illustrations

This query relates to the Illustration list for Chapter 9. Can you help?

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Illustrations 9.A and 9.B

Early in the Chapter 9 body, there were notes to add Illustrations numbered 9.A and 9.B; but they were not included in the Illustration list section of Chapter 9. How do you think we should handle this? What illustrations belong there, and where do they belong, and where in the Illustration list should they be added, if at all?
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Relevant Text From Chapter 9 Body:

“‘Pope (1957) pointed out that the crenelated parapets crowning the walls and stairway railings of Persepolis, representing the mountain symbolism of the ziggurat, “are clearly symbolic and have no possible military value’ (Illustrations 9.A and 9.B)”

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Missing Illustrations

This query relates to the Illustration list for Chapter 9. Can you help?

Add to Illustrations 9.?

Hudson made the following notes about two unnumbered illustrations in Chapter 9 that are not described to be placed elsewhere in the chapter, as far as we can tell. Can you help us identify the images and their rights, and help us find good locations to put either one in this chapter?

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Hudson’s Notes on Illustrations 9.?

9.? [the first note]: Plan of the Birs Nimrud temple, from Rawlinson 1881: Vol. II, pp. 547–549.?

9.? [the second note]: Cyrus’s tomb at Pasargadae, from Rawlinson 1881: Vol. III, p. 318. [See also: this query from Chapter 9’s body about a possible place this might be mentioned and related questions.]

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Interchapter Query: Chapter 6

Originally this appeared as a note in Chapter 6. Do you see a way to work this text into Chapter 9, as the author originally wrote was the intention? Also, can you help us update this with the current knowledge of archaeology on animal domestication?
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Hudson’s Note From Chapter 6

The first sacred storehouses were to protect the communities food and seed, and animals may have been first domesticated in the process of penning them up to provide sacrifices for the communal feasts which demarcated archaic calendars. Communal festivals accordingly became the paramount occasions for distributing all forms of the social surplus—gifts, taxes, and ultimately commercial products at fairs.

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Citation Needed

Quoted text:

most cities during the neolithic and early Bronze Age became what Lewis Mumford has called containers
Citation needed. If you have a source for this, we’ll add it as a footnote and to our Bibliography.
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Fact Check

Quoted text:

The planet with the longest and outermost orbit, Saturn, was assigned the ziggurat’s bottom level, while that with the shortest orbit, the moon, was placed at the top.
Can you help us fact-check this and make suggestions if necessary? This statement would conveniently ignore that the fourth stage of the ziggurat represented the sun, per Henry C. Rawlinson 1861, p. 20.
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Illustration Query

Quoted text:

see Illustration 9._, from George Rawlinson[1] 1881: Vol. III, p. 318

The illustration number was missing; can you help us figure out what it should be? (Should this one be 9.2 and should other illustration numbers be adjusted for the addition?)

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Also, what is the illustration that this refers to? It wasn’t cited, but maybe this is referring to page 314 or 315 of George Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, three vols. (New York: 1881), Vol. III. What do you think?

The author also had a note in the Chapter 9 General Queries “Add to Illustrations 9.?” section (the second note on the Chapter 9 General Queries page) about considering adding the following, which seems similar to the quoted text from Chapter 9 here; we would have to number it if it were identified and added:

“9.? [the second note]: Cyrus’s tomb at Pasargadae, from Rawlinson 1881: Vol. III, p. 318.”

(But there’s not much on page 318, so it might be other pages near here, or else the note is not about this part of the body text.)
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We would have to renumber the illustrations because 9.2 is currently supposed to be, per the Illustration list: “9.2 Aerial photo of the citadel of Gur, near Firuzabad, Iran, dating from Achaemean times: a cosmic city and fortified residence of the Sasanian dynasty, with concentric circular ramparts and four gates in the cardinal directions at the ends of a cross pattern of avenues. (H.P. l’Orange,[2] Studies in the Iconography of Cosmic Kingship, 1953:_.) [page number(s) unknown]).”

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  1. ↑ George Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, three vols. (New York: 1881), Vol. III, p. 318.
  2. ↑ H.P. l’Orange, Studies in the Iconography of Cosmic Kingship (Oslo: 1953).
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Verify Citation

Quoted text:

Herodotus wrote that Deioces, having built his city, established strict royal ceremonies. “Admission to the king’s presence was forbidden, and all communication had to be through messengers.” The idea was that “if nobody saw him the legend would grow that he was a being of a different order from mere men.”
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Missing Illustrations

Quoted text:

Pope[1] (1957: pp. 125, 129) pointed out that the crenelated parapets crowning the walls and stairway railings of Persepolis, representing the mountain symbolism of the ziggurat, “are clearly symbolic and have no possible military value” (Illustrations 9.A and 9.B)

Help us track down two images to insert.

And can you help us figure out what these illustrations are supposed to be? There are no lettered illustration numbers (only numbered ones such as 9.1 and 9.2, for example). Accessing Pope may help, although we did not find the answer there. (Reference the Illustration list for possible matches, or find a new image.)

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Quoted text:

“Likewise Mesopotamian was the seven-pointed star symbol atop Ahura Mazda’s polos crown,” and the investiture ceremony in which the sun-god handed the ruler the ring/measuring rope (Root[2] 1979: pp. 172f., 211ff., 166). “It is probable that the Achaemenids borrowed from Assyria not only the literary formulae, but also the actual court protocol for ceremonial enactments of the vassal/king relationship such as kissing the feet of the king.”
Can you help us check these quotations and this citation? We couldn’t find the exact phrasing on those pages but did find something similar here in a work dated to 1981 rather than the cited 1979, so maybe the page numbers Hudson cited are from a different edition? We added this item to the Chapter 9 Bibliography and footnotes based on a previous chapter’s citation (Chapter 3):

(Margaret Cool Root, The King and Kingship in Achaemenid Art: Essays on the Creation of an Iconography of Empire. Acta Iranica, 3rd series, Vol. 19 (Leiden: 1979), pp. 172f., 211ff., 166)

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Missing Digit

Quoted text:

As Diakonoff[3] (1982) and Gelb (197_) have shown, these public institutions by no means constituted the entire economy. Rather, the Sumerians had what today would be called a mixed economy, a symbiosis between public and private sectors, and also between towns and their quay areas and surrounding countryside. Cities regulated commerce within their urban walls, but let it transpire more or less freely outside the city gates in the harbor and quay areas along the canals, and above all in island entrepôts made sacred for this purpose, such as Dilmun.
What year is missing in the Gelb citation (“Gelb (197_)”), and what work was cited? There were 2 Gelb 1970s works cited in this chapter’s Bibliography, or it may be something else:

I.J. Gelb, “On the Alleged Temple and State Economies in Ancient Mesopotamia,” in Studi in Onore di Edoardo Volterra, Vol. VI (Milan: 1969), pp. 137–154.

I.J. Gelb, “The Arua Institution,” Revue d’Assyriologie, Vol. 66 (1972), pp. 1–32.

(Note: originally the 1969 work was dated 1971, and we updated it to 1969 per our research.)
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Verify Citation

Quoted text:

The iconoclastic British anthropologist Lord Raglan[4] (1964: p. 142) wrote that “All temples and palaces are cosmic buildings, and a cosmic building is a microcosm of the universe constructed for the purpose of performing cosmic rites, rites designed to ensure that the activities of the cosmic powers will produce favorable results.”
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Missing Illustration

Quoted text:

Egypt’s hieroglyphic city-symbol 𓊖 (Illustration 9.5)

Can you help us find this image?

It may be the symbol we already inserted here, 𓊖 (in which case we should remove the illustration number from the list and other cases in this chapter).

And/or, as per the Illustration list, this was presumably supposed to be:

9.5 Hieroglyphic symbols for cities (from Badawy[5] 1966: [page number(s) unknown]).

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For context, see also this query about the image in the Illustration list.
  1. ↑ Arthur Upham Pope, “Persepolis as a Ritual City,” Archaeology, Vol. 10, No. 2 (June 1957), pp. 125, 129.
  2. ↑ Margaret Cool Root, The King and Kingship in Achaemenid Art: Essays on the Creation of an Iconography of Empire. Acta Iranica, 3rd series, Vol. 19 (Leiden: 1979), pp. 172f., 211ff., 166.
  3. ↑ Igor M. Diakonoff, “The Structure of Near Eastern Society before the Middle of the 2nd Millennium BC,” Oikumene, Vol. 3 (1982), pp. 7–100.
  4. ↑ Lord Raglan, The Temple and the House (London: 1964), p. 142.
  5. ↑ A. Badawy, Architecture in Ancient Egypt and the Near East (Cambridge, Massachusetts: 1966).
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Fact Check

Quoted text:

As Raglan[1] pointed out in The Temple and the House (1964: pp. 159–162), Sargon of Akkad c. 2340 BC and his grandson Naram-Sin called themselves Ruler of the Four Quarters, as did the Ur III ruler Shulgi three centuries later. The term was applied to the Sumerian sky-gods Enlil and Anu, and to Babylonian Shamash.
Please check this fact, especially if you have access to Lord Raglan’s text. Originally written here was that “NarumSin” (rather than Naram-Sin) was Sargon of Akkad’s son, rather than grandson; can you verify spelling, hyphen, and point of fact for us? Per Wikipedia, “Naram-Sin, also transcribed Narām-Sîn or Naram-Suen,” was the grandson of Sargon of Akkad. (Originally it was written here by the author that “NarumSin” was Sargon’s “son” before we intervened and changed it to “Naram-Sin” and “grandson.”)
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Verify Citation

Quoted text:

As Raglan[2] pointed out in The Temple and the House (1964: pp. 159–162), Sargon of Akkad c. 2340 BC and his grandson Naram-Sin called themselves Ruler of the Four Quarters, as did the Ur III ruler Shulgi three centuries later. The term was applied to the Sumerian sky-gods Enlil and Anu, and to Babylonian Shamash.
Can someone with access to Lord Raglan’s text verify this point is made in these pages?
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Also, per this query, originally it was written that “NarumSin” (rather than Naram-Sin) was Sargon of Akkad’s son, rather than grandson; can you verify spelling, hyphen, and point of fact for us?
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Citation Needed

Quoted text:

“the Pharaoh shot four arrows to the four cardinal points and was enthroned four times facing the four cardinal directions.”
What is the source of this quotation? Let us know so we can add a citation. Is it Lord Raglan? If so, please provide details and specificity of pages for a full footnote citation.
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Missing Illustration

Quoted text:

A Neo-Babylonian tablet c. 600 BC showed the earth (or at least Babylonia) ringed by water (the World Ocean) as if rising out of it, much as city-temples were depicted rising out of watery chaos to become the first earthly forms (Illustration 9.6).
Can you help us identify this image? Per the Illustration list, it should be:

“9.6 Babylonia surrounded by a circular river. (H.P. L’Orange,[3] Studies in the Iconography of Cosmic Kingship, 1953: [page number unknown]).

Greek kosmos surrounded by Okeanos.”
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For context, see also this query about the image in the Illustration list.
  1. ↑ Lord Raglan, The Temple and the House (London: 1964), pp. 159–162.
  2. ↑ Lord Raglan, The Temple and the House (London: 1964), pp. 159–162.
  3. ↑ H.P. l’Orange, Studies in the Iconography of Cosmic Kingship (Oslo: 1953).
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Verify Citation

Quoted text:

(Holland[1] 1961: pp. 10–13 discussed this idea with regard to Rome.)
The page numbers might be from a different edition; can you help us verify the range? We inserted the en dash in the page range.
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Missing Illustration

Quoted text:

…Sumerian cylinder seals whose subject matter is the construction of temples and ziggurats. Illustration 9.7 shows seals from Ischali (34/36), Kish (K1420 and K2038), and a private American collection (Brett No. 13). The Ischali seal (Amiet[2] 1951: ___ [page number(s) missing]) depicts the goddess of writing, Nisaba, holding a barag sign over a ziggurat. An elaboration of this sign appears on Kish 2038. These quadrature symbols have been interpreted as signifying a divine throne or dais, or an abstraction of a four-pointed star (Amiet[3] 1951: p. 87 and van Buren[4] 1952a: pp. 68–70). They were engraved on the bricks which rulers ceremonially laid to mark temple foundations. Perhaps the idea was to depict a brick imprinted with a star-sign and cross resembling the optical illusion created by stars “giving off rays.” Whatever its inspiration, all interpreters agree that the symbol is a celestial one.
Can you help us identify what illustration was intended here? According to the Illustration list, it should be:

“Sumerian cylinder seals showing the barag city-symbol, from Pierre Amiet,[5] Culte et Mythologie (1951), plate 132, #1791, 1787 and 1788, Plate 109 #1450, #1453 and #1454, and Plate 112, #1484. (Ischali 34/36, Kish K1420 and K2038, and Brett No. 13.)”

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For context, see also this query about the image in the Illustration list.

See also these queries asking about the sources missing links or footnotes from the Chapter 9 body:

  1. Ischali 34/36 (originally written here as Ischali 34/6, but we added the second 3)
    1. later: Ischali again
    2. and Ischali once more
  2. Kish K1420 and K2038
    1. later: K2038 again
  3. Brett No. 13
  1. ↑ Louise Adams Holland, Janus and the Bridge (Rome: 1961), pp. 10–13.
  2. ↑ Pierre Amiet, Culte et Mythologie (Paris: 1951).
  3. ↑ Pierre Amiet, Culte et Mythologie (Paris: 1951).
  4. ↑ Edith Douglas van Buren, “The Building of a Temple-Tower,” Revue d’Assyriologie, Vol. 46, No. 2 (1952a), pp. 68–70.
  5. ↑ Pierre Amiet, Culte et Mythologie (Paris: 1951).
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Verify Citation

Quoted text:

seals from Ischali (34/36)
What do these numbers correspond to? Years identified? Sites? Please help us flesh it out with source links, context, or footnotes for citations.
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For context, see also this query about the image in the Illustration list. See also this query about the image from the context of the Chapter 9 body.
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Verify Citation

Quoted text:

Kish (K1420 and K2038)
What do these numbers correspond to? Sites? Please help us flesh it out with source links, context, or footnotes for citations.
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For context, see also this query about the image in the Illustration list. See also this query about the image from the context of the Chapter 9 body.
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Verify Citation

Quoted text:

a private American collection (Brett No. 13)
What does this correspond to? A person, their collection? Please help us flesh it out with a full name/collection name, source links, context, or footnotes for citations.
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For context, see also this query about the image in the Illustration list. See also this query about the image from the context of the Chapter 9 body.
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Missing Page Number

Quoted text:

The Ischali seal (Amiet[1] 1951: ___) depicts the goddess of writing, Nisaba, holding a barag sign over a ziggurat.

Can you help us identify the missing page number(s) referred to in Amiet 1951 here?

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For context, see also this query about the image in the Illustration list.

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The Ischali seal (Amiet[2] 1951: ___) depicts the goddess of writing, Nisaba, holding a barag sign over a ziggurat. An elaboration of this sign appears on Kish 2038.

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“The Ischali seal (Amiet[3] 1951: [page number(s) unknown]) depicts the goddess of writing, Nisaba, holding a _ barag sign over a ziggurat. An elaboration of this sign appears on Kish 2038 as ___”

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  3. Brett No. 13
  1. ↑ Pierre Amiet, Culte et Mythologie (Paris: 1951).
  2. ↑ Pierre Amiet, Culte et Mythologie (Paris: 1951).
  3. ↑ Pierre Amiet, Culte et Mythologie (Paris: 1951).
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Ovid, Fasti IV: 821
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van Buren[1] observed in her monograph on Mesopotamian Foundation Figurines and Offerings (1931: p. 74): “In archaic times a human dwelling was a more or less temporary construction; hence, if there was a foundation ceremony at all, the offerings were likely to be of an evanescent character. The sanctuary for a god, on the contrary, was erected upon a spot already marked out in some special way as hallowed and therefore inviolable, and the building was intended to last for countless ages.”
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“Early representations of primitive dwellings invariably show the doorposts rising even higher than the roof” (van Buren[2] 1931: p. 74).
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(Jacobsen[3] 1976: ___)
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Root[4] (1979: p. 307) stated: “In the placement of the motif on doorjambs, a principle is consistently followed whereby anyone entering a building or entering a private chamber from the main hall is confronted by the hero figure”
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“The gate was the public building par excellence of ancient Israel (and neighboring countries of the Middle East). In fact, together with the temple (which it could very much resemble in overall aspect), it constituted the only well-developed type of locale for virtually all public assemblies—political, juridical, commercial—and also religious (since the basis of public life was religious). In short, the heart of the ancient city was in its mouth” (Wright[5] 1988…)
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“In the course of time,” according to van Buren,[6] “the model doorpost was transformed into the anthropomorphic image of the spirit and guardian of the house and therefore the servant of the owner. … [H]ence there soon arose an order of minor gods whose duty it was to act as ‘Guardians of the Gate,’ the best known of whom are the six sons of the god Ea.”
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Vernant[7] (1983: p. 147) summarized the hearth’s symbolism in similar terms: “In Greece, the circle was characteristic of powers both chthonic and feminine associated with the image of the earth-mother containing within her bosom the dead, the successive generations of mankind and plant life. During the city period and the establishment of the communal hearth in the prytaneum [Latin for the Greek ‘prytaneion’], Hestia was associated with a building in the shape of a rotunda, the tholos, the sole example of the circular form in Greek religious architecture.” He suspected that at Olympia and Sicyon the prytaneion housing hestia koine may have been circular, as was Rome’s Temple of Vesta, its goddess corresponding to Greek Hestia.
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Raglan[8] (1964: pp. 75–84) derived the iconography of the civil house from that of the temple, and speculated that the four-cornered building was “primarily sacred because it is the setting for the sacred marriage.”
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To Hestia “belongs the world of the interior, the enclosed, the stable, the retreat of the human group within itself; to Hermes the outside world, opportunity, movement, interchange with others. … Hestia is apparently capable of ‘centering’ space while Hermes can ‘mobilize’ it. … in the oikos, the man represents the centrifugal element. It is for him… to establish contacts with the outside, to enter into negotiations with strangers… in work, war, trade, social contacts or public life” (Vernant[9] 1983: pp. 127ff.). In the house the place of Hermes “is at the door, protecting the threshold, repelling thieves… he also stands at the gateways of towns, on state boundaries, at crossroads, as a landmark along paths and tracks, and on tombs—those gateways to the underworld. … He is the witness to agreements, truces, and oaths between opponents; he is the herald, messenger, and ambassador abroad.”
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With regard to the circle-and-square imagery, Hestia’s round hearth was situated in the center of the large square dining hall. (Illustration 9.8 depicts the Tiryns megaron.)
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With regard to this symbolic shape, it may be significant that Hermes is associated with the tortoise, out of whose shell he is said to have made the first lyre.[10] The tortoise shell resembles the herm in having a square bottom and round top. It played an important role in Chinese divination. The text of the I Ching described heaven as being round and the earth square, and “a later edition of the Li-Chi described the Ming T’ang (palace) as being round above and square below… to signify the roundness of Heaven and the Squareness of Earth” (Raglan[11] 1964: p. 155. …).
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With regard to this symbolic shape, it may be significant that Hermes is associated with the tortoise, out of whose shell he is said to have made the first lyre.[12] The tortoise shell resembles the herm in having a square bottom and round top. It played an important role in Chinese divination. The text of the I Ching described heaven as being round and the earth square, and “a later edition of the Li-Chi described the Ming T’ang (palace) as being round above and square below… to signify the roundness of Heaven and the Squareness of Earth” (Raglan[13] 1964: p. 155. For other examples see Sickman and Soper[14] 1956: p. 214). Lethaby[15] (1974: p. 51) added that in China “even the coinage, circular with a square hole, is well-understood as symbolizing heaven and earth.” (See Illustration 9.9.)
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“Some Athenian herms (also a picture of a tortoise shell, and Chinese ‘cash-coinage’).”

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An associated herm-like image is the stupa or “tope” found throughout India and the Buddhist east, often containing auspicious relics (Illustration 9.10).
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“9.10 Stupa and tope images.”

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Likewise in Plato’s ideal city each agricultural family had a town house. (Illustration 9.11 reproduces this round city as described by Brumbaugh[16] 1954, who pointed out its musical proportions. It resembles the round horoscope divided into 12 houses, i.e., the year divided into 12 months and the ancient day divided into 12 hours, as well as the musical octave divided into 12 equal semitones.)
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“Brumbaugh[17] (1954:_ [page number(s) unknown]), representation of Plato’s ideal Round City.”

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  1. ↑ Edith Douglas van Buren, Foundation Figurines and Offerings (Berlin: 1931), p. 74.
  2. ↑ Edith Douglas van Buren, Foundation Figurines and Offerings (Berlin: 1931), p. 74.
  3. ↑ Thorkild Jacobsen, The Treasures of Darkness (New Haven, Connecticut: 1976).
  4. ↑ Margaret Cool Root, The King and Kingship in Achaemenid Art: Essays on the Creation of an Iconography of Empire. Acta Iranica, 3rd series, Vol. 19 (Leiden: 1979), p. 307.
  5. ↑ G.R.H. Wright, review of Herzog 1986, Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie, Vol. 78 (1988), pp. 155–156.
  6. ↑ Edith Douglas van Buren, Foundation Figurines and Offerings (Berlin: 1931).
  7. ↑ Jean-Pierre Vernant, Myth and Thought Among the Greeks (London and Boston: 1983), p. 147.
  8. ↑ Lord Raglan, The Temple and the House (London: 1964), pp. 75–84.
  9. ↑ Jean-Pierre Vernant, Myth and Thought Among the Greeks (London and Boston: 1983), pp. 127ff.
  10. ↑ As described in the Athenian “Homeric Hymn to Hermes,” dating from 520–511 BC according to Norman O. Brown (Hermes the Thief, 1990 [1947]: pp. 112, 66, 77).
  11. ↑ Lord Raglan, The Temple and the House (London: 1964), p. 155.
  12. ↑ As described in the Athenian “Homeric Hymn to Hermes,” dating from 520–511 BC according to Norman O. Brown (Hermes the Thief, 1990 [1947]: pp. 112, 66, 77).
  13. ↑ Lord Raglan, The Temple and the House (London: 1964), p. 155.
  14. ↑ Laurence Sickman and Alexander Soper, The Art and Archaeology of China (London: 1956), p. 214.
  15. ↑ W.R. Lethaby, Architecture, Mysticism and Myth (London: 1892), repr. 1974, Architectural Press, Oxford, p. 51.
  16. ↑ Robert S. Brumbaugh, Plato’s Mathematical Imagination: The Mathematical Passages in the Dialogues and Their Interpretation (Bloomington, Indiana: 1954).
  17. ↑ Robert S. Brumbaugh, Plato’s Mathematical Imagination: The Mathematical Passages in the Dialogues and Their Interpretation (Bloomington, Indiana: 1954).
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Army camps in particular were planned according to strict rules. The urban historian A.E.J. Morris[1] (1979: p. 39; see Illustration 9.12) described the typical Roman camp (many of which subsequently developed into permanent towns) as being laid out according to a standardized gridiron plan regardless of size: “The perimeter was square or rectangular; within this two main cross streets form the basis of the strict structure—the decumanus, through the center of town, and the cardo, usually bisecting the decumanus at right angles, towards one end.”
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“A.E. Morris,[2] History of Urban Form (1979: p. 39), schematic representation of a Roman army camp.”

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  1. ↑ A.E.J. Morris, History of Urban Form: Before the Industrial Revolutions (2nd ed., New York: 1979), p. 39.
  2. ↑ A.E.J. Morris, History of Urban Form: Before the Industrial Revolutions (2nd ed., New York: 1979), p. 39.
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“The perimeter was square or rectangular; within this two main cross streets form the basis of the strict structure—the decumanus, through the center of town, and the cardo, usually bisecting the decumanus at right angles, towards one end.”
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“had administrative independence and also a separate legal status,” with unloading depots for the barges plying the waterways of the lower Tigris and Euphrates Valley river systems (Orlin 1970: pp. 25f.)

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Orlin (1970: p. 25) added: “Through extensions of usage the term [‘karum’] also came to be employed to designate the administrative and judicial boards which supervised the business activities with which the traders were concerned.”

Example 3:

In Egypt, “The same development of meanings as in karum, originally ‘commercial settlement,’ later ‘judicial power,’ can be observed in the words ‘pharaoh’ (great house) or ‘Porte,’ originally a place where justice was executed, later ‘justice’ or the ruler himself. Cf. also the English germ ‘court,’ originally only the place where justice is dealt out” (Orlin, loc. cit., citing Gelb).
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“was administered from the ‘gate,’ or ‘gates’ in larger settlements… To each gate was assigned a precinct within the city,” a tradition still found in the portus of the early Middle Ages.
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archaeologists have not found any markets in Bronze Age urban excavations
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It was from the docking area—“kar” in Sumerian, “karum” in Babylonian—that the words for merchant derived: “damgar” in Sumerian, “tamkarum” in Babylonian, and “lugar” or “man of the quay” in Eblaic, the Semitic language spoken in northern Syria in the mid-third millennium BC.
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Orlin (1970: p. 25) added: “Through extensions of usage the term [‘karum’] also came to be employed to designate the administrative and judicial boards which supervised the business activities with which the traders were concerned.”
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By the Old Babylonian period it “was a corporate body which consisted of the merchants of the city to which it was attached” (Larsen[1] 1976: pp. 231f.).
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(Orlin, loc. cit., citing Gelb)

Can you help us identify the year and text referred to by “Gelb”? There are multiple options in this chapter’s Bibliography, or it may be something else:

  1. I.J. Gelb, “The Ancient Mesopotamian Ration System,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 24 (1965), pp. 230–243.
  2. I.J. Gelb, “Approaches to the Study of Ancient Society,” Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 87, No. 1 (1967), pp. 1–8.
  3. I.J. Gelb, “On the Alleged Temple and State Economies in Ancient Mesopotamia,” in Studi in Onore di Edoardo Volterra, Vol. VI (Milan: 1969), pp. 137–154.
  4. I.J. Gelb, “The Arua Institution,” Revue d’Assyriologie, Vol. 66 (1972), pp. 1–32.
  5. I.J. Gelb, “Ebla and Lagash: Environmental Contrast,” in Harvey Weiss (ed.), The Origins of Cities in Dry-Farming Syria and Mesopotamia in the Third Millennium B.C. (Guilford, Connecticut: 1986), pp. 157–167.
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Missing Quotation Mark

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In Egypt, “The same development of meanings as in karum, originally ‘commercial settlement,’ later ‘judicial power,’ can be observed in the words ‘pharaoh’ (great house) or ‘Porte,’ originally a place where justice was executed, later ‘justice’ or the ruler himself. Cf. also the English germ ‘court,’ originally only the place where justice is dealt out” (Orlin, loc. cit., citing Gelb).
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Also, can someone help us identify the full citation for the text called “Orlin 1970” so we can add a footnote citation (and add it to the Bibliography) and help us verify the quotation (see this query)? And lastly, we don’t have the full citation for Gelb either (see this query).
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Specify Citation

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(A survey of Mesopotamian boundary stones may be found in Gelb/Steinkeller 199_.)
Could “Steinkeller” be the 1981 work cited in Chapter 3’s Bibliography? If so, we need to write it out here, add footnote/citation, and add it to this Chapter 9’s Bibliography:

Piotr Steinkeller, “The Renting of Fields in Early Mesopotamia and the Development of the Concept of ‘Interest’ in Sumerian,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 24 (1981).

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Quoted text:

(A survey of Mesopotamian boundary stones may be found in Gelb/Steinkeller 199_.)

Can you help us identify the year and text referred to here by “Gelb/Steinkeller 199_”? There are multiple options for Gelb in this chapter’s Bibliography, although none is coauthored with Steinkeller and so it may be something else (or it may be two separate works incompletely cited):

  1. I.J. Gelb, “The Ancient Mesopotamian Ration System,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 24 (1965), pp. 230–243.
  2. I.J. Gelb, “Approaches to the Study of Ancient Society,” Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 87, No. 1 (1967), pp. 1–8.
  3. I.J. Gelb, “On the Alleged Temple and State Economies in Ancient Mesopotamia,” in Studi in Onore di Edoardo Volterra, Vol. VI (Milan: 1969), pp. 137–154.
  4. I.J. Gelb, “The Arua Institution,” Revue d’Assyriologie, Vol. 66 (1972), pp. 1–32.
  5. I.J. Gelb, “Ebla and Lagash: Environmental Contrast,” in Harvey Weiss (ed.), The Origins of Cities in Dry-Farming Syria and Mesopotamia in the Third Millennium B.C. (Guilford, Connecticut: 1986), pp. 157–167.
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Missing Digit

Quoted text:

Communal land tenure was more transitory, being subject to periodic redistribution (Gelb 19__).

Can you help us identify the year and text referred to by “Gelb”? There are multiple options in this chapter’s Bibliography, or it may be something else:

  1. I.J. Gelb, “The Ancient Mesopotamian Ration System,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 24 (1965), pp. 230–243.
  2. I.J. Gelb, “Approaches to the Study of Ancient Society,” Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 87, No. 1 (1967), pp. 1–8.
  3. I.J. Gelb, “On the Alleged Temple and State Economies in Ancient Mesopotamia,” in Studi in Onore di Edoardo Volterra, Vol. VI (Milan: 1969), pp. 137–154.
  4. I.J. Gelb, “The Arua Institution,” Revue d’Assyriologie, Vol. 66 (1972), pp. 1–32.
  5. I.J. Gelb, “Ebla and Lagash: Environmental Contrast,” in Harvey Weiss (ed.), The Origins of Cities in Dry-Farming Syria and Mesopotamia in the Third Millennium B.C. (Guilford, Connecticut: 1986), pp. 157–167.
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Missing Illustration

Quoted text:

The only extant Mesopotamian boundary stones signified royal lands, e.g., the stela of Manishtushu of Akkad (Illustration 9.14). These boundary stones were engraved with the symbols of Enki as patron god of boundaries.
Can you help us find this illustration? According to the Illustration list, it should be related to:

“Stela of Manishtushu and other Mesopotamian boundary stones. Also, from Pope[2] 1957: fig. 3 ziggurat-like parapets from Persepolis (from Rostamyk, Teheran Museum). And fig. 4 (from D. Schlumberger), ziggurat-like symbol from Afghanistan, combining rosette, pointed spear, and door into the ‘sacred mountain.’”

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  1. ↑ Mogens Trolle Larsen, The Old Assyrian City-State and Its Colonies (Copenhagen: 1976), pp. 231f.
  2. ↑ Arthur Upham Pope, “Persepolis as a Ritual City,” Archaeology, Vol. 10, No. 2 (June 1957), pp. 123–130.
  3. ↑ Arthur Upham Pope, “Persepolis as a Ritual City,” Archaeology, Vol. 10, No. 2 (June 1957), pp. 123–130.
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Missing Digit

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By contrast, markers for privately or communally held lands were made of more perishable materials, apparently on the logic that such lands were redistributed periodically (Gelb 19__).

What year is missing in the Gelb citation (“Gelb 19_”), and what work was cited?

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  1. I.J. Gelb, “The Ancient Mesopotamian Ration System,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 24 (1965), pp. 230–243.
  2. I.J. Gelb, “Approaches to the Study of Ancient Society,” Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 87, No. 1 (1967), pp. 1–8.
  3. I.J. Gelb, “On the Alleged Temple and State Economies in Ancient Mesopotamia,” in Studi in Onore di Edoardo Volterra, Vol. VI (Milan: 1969), pp. 137–154.
  4. I.J. Gelb, “The Arua Institution,” Revue d’Assyriologie, Vol. 66 (1972), pp. 1–32.
  5. I.J. Gelb, “Ebla and Lagash: Environmental Contrast,” in Harvey Weiss (ed.), The Origins of Cities in Dry-Farming Syria and Mesopotamia in the Third Millennium B.C. (Guilford, Connecticut: 1986), pp. 157–167.
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Specify Citation

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(The lower orders for their part were too impoverished to be squeezed of any taxes, and the middle orders soon fell into poverty, as Rostovtzeff[1] and Jones have described vividly.)
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Key Concept Missing in Chapter Body

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Urban sprawl and overpopulation, followed in the late Roman Empire by deurbanization and a descent into the Dark Age as commercial activity decayed and families withdrew to self-sufficient estates on the land.
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Verify Citation

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A.L. Frothingham, “Ancient Orientation Unveiled,” American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 21 (1917), pp. 55–76, 313–332, 420–448.

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W.R. Lethaby, Architecture, Mysticism and Myth (London: 1892), repr. 1974, Architectural Press, Oxford.

W.R. Lethaby, Architecture, Nature and Magic (London: 1956).
Can you verify this title (Architecture, Nature and Magic) and details? We could not find evidence of this anywhere online. It may be that it was the old title for the work a line above it (Architecture, Mysticism and Myth)? See at this source: “W.R. Lethaby’s Architecture, Nature, and Magic. The book was originally published in 1892 under the name Architecture, Mysticism, and Myth.”
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Verify Citation

Quoted text:

Jaan Puhvel, “The Origins of Greek Kosmos and Latin Mundus,” American Journal of Philology, Vol. 97 (1976), pp. 154–167.
The spelling of the author’s first name seems correct here (in Chapter 9’s Bibliography, Chapter 12’s Bibliography and footnotes, and the book’s Bibliography chapter for sections for Chapter 9 and Chapter 12) based on the source link here, but let us know if the source link is incorrect. See also a related query about Chapter 6 for Jean Puhvel rather than Jaan Puhvel here, the same query in Chapter 11 here, and another query in Chapter 12 here.
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Illustration Query

Quoted text:

Illustrations
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Missing Page Number

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9.2 Aerial photo of the citadel of Gur, near Firuzabad, Iran, dating from Achaemenid times: a cosmic city and fortified residence of the Sasanian dynasty, with concentric circular ramparts and four gates in the cardinal directions at the ends of a cross pattern of avenues. (H.P. l’Orange,[2] Studies in the Iconography of Cosmic Kingship, 1953:_.)

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Missing Illustration Location

Quoted text:

9.2 Aerial photo of the citadel of Gur, near Firuzabad, Iran, dating from Achaemenid times: a cosmic city and fortified residence of the Sasanian dynasty, with concentric circular ramparts and four gates in the cardinal directions at the ends of a cross pattern of avenues. (H.P. l’Orange,[3] Studies in the Iconography of Cosmic Kingship, 1953:_.)

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Missing Page Number

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9.3 Chinese capitals and their gates (Wheatley,[4] The Four Quarters, 1971:_).
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Missing Page Number

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9.4 Roman templum diagram (from Rykwert,[5] The Idea of a Town, 1976:_).
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Missing Page Number

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9.5 Hieroglyphic symbols for cities (from Badawy[6] 1966:_).
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Missing Page Number

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9.6 Babylonia surrounded by a circular river. (H.P. l’Orange,[7] Studies in the Iconography of Cosmic Kingship, 1953:_.)
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Missing Page Number

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9.7 Sumerian cylinder seals showing the barag city-symbol, from Pierre Amiet,[8] Culte et Mythologie (1951), plate 132, #1791, 1787 and 1788, Plate 109 #1450, #1453 and #1454, and Plate 112, #1484. (Ischali 34/36, Kish K1420 and K2038, and Brett No. 13.)
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  1. Ischali 34/36 (originally written here as Ischali 34/6, but we added the second 3)
    1. later: Ischali again
    2. and Ischali once more
  2. Kish K1420 and K2038
    1. later: K2038 again
  3. Brett No. 13
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Specify Citation

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9.8 Tiryns megaron, Kaiserliche Deutsche Archaeologisches Institut in Athens, Vol. II (Athens: 1912), Tafel xix.
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Illustration Query

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9.9 Some Athenian herms (also a picture of a tortoise shell, and Chinese “cash-coinage”).
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Illustration Query

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9.10 Stupa and tope images.
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Missing Page Number

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9.11 Brumbaugh[9] (1954:_), representation of Plato’s ideal Round City.
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Illustration Query

Quoted text:

9.12 A.E. Morris,[10] History of Urban Form (1979: p. 39), schematic representation of a Roman army camp.
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Missing Text

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9.13 Picture of __ patterns on modern clockfaces, and phone dial.
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Missing Illustration Location

Quoted text:

9.13 Picture of __ patterns on modern clockfaces, and phone dial.
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Specify Citation

Quoted text:

9.14 Stela of Manishtushu and other Mesopotamian boundary stones. Also, from Pope[11] 1957: fig. 3 ziggurat-like parapets from Persepolis (from Rostamyk, Teheran Museum). And fig. 4 (from D. Schlumberger), ziggurat-like symbol from Afghanistan, combining rosette, pointed spear, and door into the “sacred mountain.”
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  1. ↑ Michael Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World (1941).
  2. ↑ H.P. l’Orange, Studies in the Iconography of Cosmic Kingship (Oslo: 1953).
  3. ↑ H.P. l’Orange, Studies in the Iconography of Cosmic Kingship (Oslo: 1953).
  4. ↑ Paul Wheatley, The Pivot of the Four Quarters: A Preliminary Enquiry into the Origins and Character of the Ancient Chinese City (Edinburgh: 1971).
  5. ↑ Joseph Rykwert, The Idea of a Town: The Anthropology of Urban Form in Rome, Italy and the Ancient World (Princeton, New Jersey: 1976).
  6. ↑ A. Badawy, Architecture in Ancient Egypt and the Near East (Cambridge, Massachusetts: 1966).
  7. ↑ H.P. l’Orange, Studies in the Iconography of Cosmic Kingship (Oslo: 1953).
  8. ↑ Pierre Amiet, Culte et Mythologie (Paris: 1951).
  9. ↑ Robert S. Brumbaugh, Plato’s Mathematical Imagination: The Mathematical Passages in the Dialogues and Their Interpretation (Bloomington, Indiana: 1954).
  10. ↑ A.E.J. Morris, History of Urban Form: Before the Industrial Revolutions (2nd ed., New York: 1979), p. 39.
  11. ↑ Arthur Upham Pope, “Persepolis as a Ritual City,” Archaeology, Vol. 10, No. 2 (June 1957), pp. 123–130.
  12. ↑ Arthur Upham Pope, “Persepolis as a Ritual City,” Archaeology, Vol. 10, No. 2 (June 1957), pp. 123–130.
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9.14 Stela of Manishtushu and other Mesopotamian boundary stones. Also, from Pope[1] 1957: fig. 3 ziggurat-like parapets from Persepolis (from Rostamyk, Teheran Museum). And fig. 4 (from D. Schlumberger), ziggurat-like symbol from Afghanistan, combining rosette, pointed spear, and door into the “sacred mountain.”
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  1. ↑ Arthur Upham Pope, “Persepolis as a Ritual City,” Archaeology, Vol. 10, No. 2 (June 1957), pp. 123–130.
  2. ↑ Arthur Upham Pope, “Persepolis as a Ritual City,” Archaeology, Vol. 10, No. 2 (June 1957), pp. 123–130.
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9.14 Stela of Manishtushu and other Mesopotamian boundary stones. Also, from Pope[1] 1957: fig. 3 ziggurat-like parapets from Persepolis (from Rostamyk, Teheran Museum). And fig. 4 (from D. Schlumberger), ziggurat-like symbol from Afghanistan, combining rosette, pointed spear, and door into the “sacred mountain.”
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In The Pivot of the Four Quarters (1971: p. 411) Paul Wheatley described how Chinese capital cities used a “cosmo-magical” geometry to symbolize their moral and administrative rectitude. Each of their four walls contained three gates—making 12 in all—aligned to the four cardinal directions and hence to the celestial microcosm (Illustration 9.2).

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“Aerial photo of the citadel of Gur, near Firuzabad, Iran, dating from Achaemenid times: a cosmic city and fortified residence of the Sasanian dynasty, with concentric circular ramparts and four gates in the cardinal directions at the ends of a cross pattern of avenues. (H.P. l’Orange,[2] Studies in the Iconography of Cosmic Kingship, 1953:_.) [page number(s) unknown]).”

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  1. ↑ Arthur Upham Pope, “Persepolis as a Ritual City,” Archaeology, Vol. 10, No. 2 (June 1957), pp. 123–130.
  2. ↑ H.P. l’Orange, Studies in the Iconography of Cosmic Kingship (Oslo: 1953).
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Public buildings and the most prestigious private houses were aligned by the art of geomancy, feng shui, whose tool was a compass surrounded by circles containing zodiacal and calendrical information (Illustration 9.3)

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9.3 Chinese capitals and their gates (Wheatley,[1] The Four Quarters, 1971: [page number unknown]).

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  1. ↑ Paul Wheatley, The Pivot of the Four Quarters: A Preliminary Enquiry into the Origins and Character of the Ancient Chinese City (Edinburgh: 1971).
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In India the mandala was employed, while Roman city planners used a templum diagram—a cardinal cross enclosed in a circle (Illustration 9.4)

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9.4 Roman templum diagram (from Rykwert,[1] The Idea of a Town, 1976: [page number unknown]).

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  1. ↑ Joseph Rykwert, The Idea of a Town: The Anthropology of Urban Form in Rome, Italy and the Ancient World (Princeton, New Jersey: 1976).
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Pierre Amiet, Culte et Mythologie (Paris: 1951).
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Plutarch’s Roman Questions #61 and Pliny’s Natural History (III.56) reported that a magistrate who improperly revealed the city’s secret name was executed for his indiscretion.
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