Can We Save the World’s Largest Flowers From the Brink of Extinction?
The 42 known species of the genus Rafflesia are under threat due to deforestation and habitat destruction.
Introduction
The stench of decay announces death—but Rafflesia plants turn it on like a neon sign. Forty-two parasitic species exude the smell of rot to lure insects, thriving under the guise of death. From a distance, the flowers could be mistaken for something long past its prime, their massive blooms draped across the forest floor. Up close, the effect is even more striking: a putrid, almost tangible odor that seems to hang in the air, signaling that something is very, very wrong. This foul aroma isn’t accidental—Rafflesia cranks out the scent of rotting flesh like a siren call, drawing in carrion flies to carry out the plant’s reproductive work. “The flowers of Rafflesia are known to emit a putrid odor. The scent resembles the smell of rotting flesh, which attracts pollinating carrion flies (e.g., Calliphora, Chrysomya, Hypopygiopsis, Lucilia, and Sarcophaga),” according to an article by researchers in the Philippines published in the journal Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution in 2019.
This stink has helped Rafflesia to keep death at bay for its species. But its existence is now under threat, and out of the 42 species of Rafflesia, 25 have been classified as critically endangered, 15 as endangered, and two as vulnerable based on the International Union for Conservation of Nature criteria.
Threat of Extinction
According to estimates by Chris Thorogood, botanist and the deputy director and head of science at the University of Oxford’s Botanic Garden and Arboretum, around 60 percent of all known Rafflesia species are at severe risk of extinction (critically endangered). This is a consequence of “wholesale habitat destruction and deforestation for timber extraction and conversion to oil palm plantations and other monoculture crops,” stated a February 2025 Forbes article.
“Alarmingly, recent observations suggest taxa are still being eradicated before they are even known to science,” Thorogood and collaborators wrote in their 2023 paper published in the journal Plants, People, Planet.
The corpse flowers, as Rafflesia are so often called, are endoparasitic: their vegetative organs are so changed and reduced that the plant subsists as a network of thread-thin, cellular strands attached within the tissues of host plants. It doesn’t have any green photosynthetic tissues, leaves, roots, or stems, and the Rafflesia plants sustain themselves on the nutrition provided by hosts such as the wild grapes of the vine genus Tetrastigma.
“Found only in Southeast Asian rainforests, the Rafflesia genus produces the world’s largest flowers,” according to Mongabay.
Cultural Importance of Rafflesia in Southeast Asia
The Rafflesia is culturally significant to the Indigenous communities. For the Orang Asli communities of Malaysia, particularly the Temiar and Jahai tribes, the corpse flowers are believed to contain the spirits of the forest and are indicators of the “forest ecosystems’ health.” A sudden flourishing of blooming Rafflesia may signify extended monsoons or crucial ecological shifts. “Before entering a Rafflesia habitat, some Orang Asli groups perform rituals or seek permission from forest spirits to ensure the harmony of nature is not disturbed,” Rusli Angah, a tour guide from the Temiar tribe, stated in a Free Malaysia Today article.
In Indonesia, the Rafflesia is one of three national flowers. In the Surat Thani province of Thailand, “the plant is considered a delicacy by local communities,” according to the Plants, People, Planet paper. In Malaysia, the corpse flowers have often been used as an “aphrodisiac and astringent by ‘high-born’ women in Java. … However, preliminary phytochemical screening has showed no evidence of the flowers’ medicinal properties,” stated the National Library Board, Singapore. Along with its various uses, it is an economically sustaining means of ecotourism in the countries where it resides.
Environmental Importance of Rafflesia and Conservation Challenges
Rafflesia’s parasitic behavior also has practical value for the ecosystems as a whole. “[Parasitism] is a process that is essential in maintaining ecosystem balance, ultimately increasing species diversity in an ecosystem,” explained Jeanmaire Molina, a plant evolutionary biologist and associate professor at Pace University in New York, in a FlipScience article. “The parasite keeps the host population in check, preventing overgrowth that can negatively impact other species and reduce diversity.” Molina also said that Rafflesia fruits and seeds are food sources for ants and small mammals, “who in turn act as the plant’s dispersal vectors, transporting seeds to different locations in their shared habitats.” To this effect, Rafflesia plants are widely considered “keystone species” in their ecosystems.
The lack of extensive knowledge about Rafflesia, however, presents a significant challenge in conserving them. “Rafflesia species are rare and restricted to remote forest habitats of Southeast Asia, so they are difficult to get to, collect, and study,” Molina told Mongabay in 2023.
Moreover, since Rafflesia is dispersed alongside communities from diverse social and cultural backgrounds, this poses practical difficulties for conservation efforts. Highlighting “(1) a discord in understanding at a global and regional level; and (2) the need for grassroots regional and community-level action rather than a dependency on umbrella schemes,” pointed out the paper. There are also unique challenges involved in the propagation and seed banking efforts for this species.
Rafflesia found on private land is especially under threat as forested areas are being converted to oil and coffee plantations. “The future survival of Rafflesia here hinges on efforts to convince landowners to protect these populations.”
Solutions to Ensuring the Survival of the Corpse Flower
There is an urgent need for a multidimensional approach for preserving and protecting the corpse flowers in Southeast Asia, which includes the participation of local communities and greater habitat protection efforts. “We propose a multi-pronged conservation approach combining strengthened taxonomy, ex situ propagation, ecotourism, and an extension of protected areas. We suggest action devolved to local communities and awareness campaigns linked to social media networks will be crucial outside of protected jurisdictions. Finally, we propose to establish Rafflesia as a new icon for plant conservation in the Asian tropics,” stated the 2023 paper.
In Brunei, the one species of Rafflesia—Rafflesia pricei Meijer, found in Ulu Temburong National Park—has been protected under national legislation that enforces conservation measures. Supplementing these federal endeavors are nongovernmental organizations such as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), which have projects to help with climate change mitigation and sustainable management of tropical forests. “In 2007, the governments of Brunei, Malaysia, and Indonesia issued a joint declaration as part of the Heart of Borneo Initiative, which was led by the WWF. The program aims to strengthen the preservation of Borneo’s remaining undisturbed forests, which are crucial habitats for rare plants such as Rafflesia,” explained the paper.
In Indonesia, deemed one of the biggest centers for Rafflesia biodiversity in Southeast Asia, the Ministry of Environment and Forestry has prioritized conservation efforts for the genus. For instance, an in-situ conservation campaign has been introduced at the Bogor Botanic Garden (BBG) in West Java. Through a combination of grafting, in vivo and in vitro seed propagation, and tissue culture in 2010, success was achieved in the ex situ conservation of Rafflesia, marked by the blooming of Rafflesia patma. A Tetrastigma vine nursery has also been established at the BBG to help with propagation and ex situ conservation efforts through grafting.
“In Bukittinggi, West Sumatra, local gardener Joni Hartono applied seed from the ripe fruits of R. arnoldii onto a Tetrastigma vine in his garden, yielding buds several years later. … Similar reports exist for Rafflesia keithii in Malaysia,” pointed out the Plants, People, Planet study. Most important of all are the “Pokdarwis,” tourism awareness groups comprising young villagers who are passionate about natural history. This effort aims to explore revenue potential from ecotourism, such as promoting blooming events.
In line with the need for ecotourism, Malaysia has protected its Rafflesia through promotion, generating interest beyond the nation’s borders. According to a report by R.F. Peters and Y.Y. Ting, the Indigenous Dusun community has utilized ecotourism to support Rafflesia conservation efforts indirectly. In Peninsular Malaysia, for example, the primary approach to conserving and protecting Rafflesia populations is designating Rafflesia habitats as high conservation value forests (HCVFs) or high conservation value areas (HCVAs). The HCV approach encompasses species diversity, ecosystems, habitats, landscape-level ecosystems, ecosystem services, cultural values, and community needs. Together, these six themes integrate social and environmental priorities shared by various stakeholders, including tourists.
It is essential, however, to ensure that the efforts to promote ecotourism take into consideration recommendations made by scientists so that they are actually aiding the conservation efforts instead of disturbing the natural environment of the Rafflesia and causing further harm.
Meanwhile, in the Philippines, the high level of endemism, coupled with forest degradation and the lack of general government oversight, means that there are greater threats of extinction for the Philippine Rafflesia compared to other places in Southeast Asia. For example, in Barangay Bolos Point in the Cagayan Province of Luzon Island, Rafflesia leonardi maybe extinct due to a devastating typhoon in 2018. Elsewhere, the Rafflesia baletei, a species previously documented in three locations in Mount Isarog National Park, now exists within a small and isolated patch of secondary forest between abaca plantations.
Fortunately, the different regions and municipalities of the Philippines have their own methods of conservation with little to no aid from the federal government. “On the island of Mindanao, some Rafflesia sites, for example, those in Maragusan and Lantapan in Bukidnon, are being monitored by the local government unit. Meanwhile, the site of Rafflesia mixta has been declared a Critical Habitat Area through a municipal ordinance. On Panay, R. speciosa and R. lobata are both celebrated by local people. A community-based tourism association dedicated to promoting these species has been established. On Luzon Island, the Indigenous people play a vital role in monitoring and conserving species (for example, Rafflesia banaoana and Rafflesia leonardi),” stated the paper.
Indigenous Groups at the Forefront of Conservation Efforts
The primary protectors of the corpse flowers are none other than the Indigenous communities of Southeast Asia, who, despite representing only 5 percent of the global population, are the stewards of 80 percent of the Earth’s biodiversity. “Indigenous peoples are some of the best guardians of our forests, and Rafflesia conservation programs are far more likely to be successful if they engage local communities,” said Adriane Tobias, a forester from the Philippines, in a 2023 Guardian article. “Rafflesia has the potential to be a new icon for conservation in the Asian tropics.” Because some of the rarest and most poorly understood species of Rafflesia are located within remote areas only accessible through Indigenous knowledge and guidance, it is essential to ally with the local communities of each Southeast Asian nation to locate, identify, and protect the new and old species of Rafflesia.
Death is awful, and extinction stinks for both Rafflesia and the communities that have lived alongside the corpse flowers for untold generations. The campaign to ensure all 42 species of Rafflesia are not hovering at the edge of extinction is still ongoing; however, the methodologies each Southeast Asian country utilizes for preserving their Rafflesia species vary and are often vague. Ultimately, it requires further attention and care, concerted supportive action from Indigenous communities and government agencies, and the cessation of deforestation and other ecological and economic hazards to ensure the survival of the world’s largest flower.
